Logic, reasoning, philosophy, fallacies, biases, debating techniques

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Corollary
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A proposition that follows with little or no additional proof from one already proven.
Doctrine
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A belief or set of beliefs held and taught by a church, political party, or other group.
Axioms
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Statements or propositions that are regarded as being established, accepted, or self-evidently true.
Consequents
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The outcomes or results in a hypothetical proposition that follows from the condition.
Conditions
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Circumstances or factors that are necessary for something else to happen.
Inference
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The process of reaching a conclusion based on evidence and reasoning.
Proposition
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A statement or assertion that expresses a judgment or opinion.
Syllogism
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A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises).
Premise
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A previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion.
Deduction
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The inference of particular instances by reference to a general law or principle.
Induction
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The process of reasoning from specific cases to general principles.
Validity
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The quality of being logically or factually sound; soundness or cogency of an argument.
Fallacy
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A mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound argument.
Hypothesis
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A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
Theorem
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A general proposition not self-evident but proved by a chain of reasoning; a truth established by means of accepted truths.
Postulate
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A thing suggested or assumed as true as the basis for reasoning, discussion, or belief.
Rationalism
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A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response.
Empiricism
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The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience.
Dialectic
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The art of investigating or discussing the truth of opinions; dialogue as a form of reasoning.
Epistemology
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The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope, and the distinction between justified belief and opinion.
Ontology
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The branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being.
Causality
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The relationship between cause and effect.
Analytic
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Relating to or using analysis or logical reasoning.
Synthetic
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Involving the creation of something rather than the analysis of something existing.
Pragmatism
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A philosophical approach that assesses the truth of meaning of theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application.
Paradigm
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A typical example or pattern of something; a model.
Modus Ponens
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A form of argument in logic where if 'P implies Q' and 'P' is asserted to be true, then 'Q' must be true.
Utilitarianism
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A theory in normative ethics holding that the best moral action is the one that maximizes utility.
Deontology
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An ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong, often associated with a moral duty and obligation.
Existentialism
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A philosophical theory or approach that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice.
Metaphysics
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A branch of philosophy that explores the fundamental nature of reality and being.
Solipsism
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The philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist.
Dualism
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The division of something conceptually into two opposed or contrasted aspects, or the state of being so divided. In philosophy, it often refers to the mind-body dualism, the view that the mind and body are fundamentally different in nature.
Hedonism
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The ethical theory that pleasure (in the sense of the satisfaction of desires) is the highest good and proper aim of human life.
Teleology
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The explanation of phenomena by the purpose they serve rather than by postulated causes.
Determinism
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The philosophical theory that all events, including moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes.
Phenomenology
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The philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness.
Stoicism
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A school of Hellenistic philosophy that teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means to achieve a life of virtue.
Materialism
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The theory or belief that nothing exists except matter and its movements and modifications.
Idealism
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The theory that the physical world is just a manifestation of mind or spirit.
Monism
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The doctrine that reality is a unified whole and that all existing things can be ascribed to or described by a single concept or system.
Pluralism
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A theory that there is more than one basic substance or principle.
Nihilism
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The rejection of all religious and moral principles, often in the belief that life is meaningless.
Absolutism
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The acceptance of or belief in absolute principles in political, philosophical, ethical, or theological matters.
Relativism
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The doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute.
Skepticism
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A skeptical attitude; doubt as to the truth of something.
Humanism
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A rationalist outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters.
Pantheism
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A doctrine that identifies God with the universe, or regards the universe as a manifestation of God.
Realism
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The attitude or practice of accepting a situation as it is and being prepared to deal with it accordingly.
Virtue Ethics
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An approach to ethics that emphasizes an individual's character as the key element of ethical thinking.
Existential Ethics
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A form of ethical theory which bases moral judgment on the existential qualities of the decision and the decision-maker.
Logical Positivism
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A philosophical movement that asserts that only statements verifiable through empirical observation are cognitively meaningful.
Aesthetics
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The branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.
Post-structuralism
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An intellectual movement and approach to the study of literature, anthropology, and other fields, that rejects absolutes and emphasizes the complexity and variability of human cultural practices.
Argument
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A set of statements or reasons making a case for or against something.
Contradiction
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A combination of statements, ideas, or features which are opposed to one another.
Tautology
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A statement that is true by necessity or by virtue of its logical form.
Propositional Logic
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A branch of logic that studies ways of joining and/or modifying entire propositions, statements or sentences to form more complicated propositions, statements or sentences.
Quantifier
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A symbol used in logic to specify the quantity of specimens in the domain of discourse that satisfy an open formula.
Modal Logic
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A type of logic that extends classical logic to include modalities such as possibility, necessity, and contingency.
Soundness
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A property of a deductive argument wherein if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
Inference Rule
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A logical form consisting of a function that takes premises, analyzes their syntax, and returns a conclusion (or conclusions).
Predicate Logic
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A symbolic formalism used in mathematical logic where statements about objects can also include relations between them.
Consistency
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A property of a set of statements that do not contradict each other.
Logical Form
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The form of an argument that results from abstracting away from the content of its statements and presenting only the logical connectives.
Reductio ad Absurdum
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A form of argument which attempts to establish a claim by showing that the opposite scenario would lead to absurdity or contradiction.
Biconditional
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A logical connective between statements where the truth of one implies and is implied by the truth of the other.
Disjunction
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A logical operator that results in true if at least one of the operands is true.
Conjunction
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A logical operator that results in true if both of its operands are true.
Inductive Reasoning
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A method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion.
Deductive Reasoning
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The process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion.
Counterexample
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An example that disproves a proposition or theory.
Formal Fallacy
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An error in reasoning that involves the formal aspects of an argument.
Informal Fallacy
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An error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the content or context of the argument.

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